Historia del cálculo: Isaac Newton

De 1667 a 1669 emprendió investigaciones sobre óptica y fue elegido fellow del Trinity College. En 1669 su mentor, Isaac Barrow, renunció a su Cátedra Lucasiana de matemática, puesto en el que Newton le sucedería hasta 1696. El mismo año envió a Luis Zeus, por medio de Barrow, su "Analysis per aequationes número terminorum infinitos". Para Newton, este manuscrito representa la introducción a un potente método general, que desarrollaría más tarde: su cálculo diferencial e integral.

Newton había descubierto los principios de su cálculo diferencial e integral hacia 1665-1666 y, durante el decenio siguiente, elaboró al menos tres enfoques diferentes de su nuevo análisis.

Newton y Leibniz protagonizaron una agria polémica sobre la autoría del desarrollo de esta rama de la matemática. Los historiadores de la ciencia consideran que ambos desarrollaron el cálculo independientemente, si bien la notación de Leibniz era mejor y la formulación de Newton se aplicaba mejor a problemas prácticos. La polémica dividió aún más a los matemáticos británicos y continentales, sin embargo esta separación no fue tan profunda como para que Newton y Leibniz dejaran de intercambiar resultados.

Newton abordó el desarrollo del cálculo a partir de la geometría analítica desarrollando un enfoque geométrico y analítico de las derivadas matemáticas aplicadas sobre curvas definidas a través de ecuaciones. Newton también buscaba cómo cuadrar distintas curvas, y la relación entre la cuadratura y la teoría de tangentes. Después de los estudios de Roberval, Newton se percató de que el método de tangentes podía utilizarse para obtener las velocidades instantáneas de una trayectoria conocida. En sus primeras investigaciones Newton lidia únicamente con problemas geométricos, como encontrar tangentes, curvaturas y áreas utilizando como base matemática la geometría analítica de Descartes. No obstante, con el afán de separar su teoría de la de Descartes, comenzó a trabajar únicamente con las ecuaciones y sus variables sin necesidad de recurrir al sistema cartesiano.

Después de 1666 Newton abandonó sus trabajos matemáticos sintiéndose interesado cada vez más por el estudio de la naturaleza y la creación de sus Principia.
Esta introducción corresponde a la primera traduccion al español

Newton's work has been said "to distinctly advance every branch of mathematics then studied".

His work on the subject usually referred to as fluxions or calculus is seen, for example, in a manuscript of October 1666, now published among Newton's mathematical papers. A related subject was infinite series. Newton's manuscript "De analysi per aequationes numero terminorum infinitas" ("On analysis by equations infinite in number of terms") was sent by Isaac Barrow to John Collins in June 1669: in August 1669 Barrow identified its author to Collins as "Mr Newton, a fellow of our College, and very young ... but of an extraordinary genius and proficiency in these things".

Newton later became involved in a dispute with Leibniz over priority in the development of infinitesimal calculus. Most modern historians believe that Newton and Leibniz developed infinitesimal calculus independently, although with very different notations. Occasionally it has been suggested that Newton published almost nothing about it until 1693, and did not give a full account until 1704, while Leibniz began publishing a full account of his methods in 1684. (Leibniz's notation and "differential Method", nowadays recognised as much more convenient notations, were adopted by continental European mathematicians, and after 1820 or so, also by British mathematicians.) Such a suggestion, however, fails to notice the content of calculus which critics of Newton's time and modern times have pointed out in Book 1 of Newton's Principia itself (published 1687) and in its forerunner manuscripts, such as De motu corporum in gyrum ("On the motion of bodies in orbit"), of 1684.

The Principia is not written in the language of calculus either as we know it or as Newton's (later) 'dot' notation would write it. But his work extensively uses an infinitesimal calculus in geometric form, based on limiting values of the ratios of vanishing small quantities: in the Principia itself Newton gave demonstration of this under the name of 'the method of first and last ratios'[20] and explained why he put his expositions in this form, remarking also that 'hereby the same thing is performed as by the method of indivisibles'.

Because of this, the Principia has been called "a book dense with the theory and application of the infinitesimal calculus" in modern times and "lequel est presque tout de ce calcul" ('nearly all of it is of this calculus') in Newton's time. His use of methods involving "one or more orders of the infinitesimally small" is present in his De Motu Corporum in Gyrum of 1684 and in his papers on motion "during the two decades preceding 1684".

Newton had been reluctant to publish his calculus because he feared controversy and criticism.

He had a very close relationship with Swiss mathematician Nicolas Fatio de Duillier, who from the beginning was impressed by Newton's gravitational theory. In 1691, Duillier planned to prepare a new version of Newton's Principia, but never finished it. However, in 1693 the relationship between the two men changed. At the time, Duillier had also exchanged several letters with Leibniz.

Starting in 1699, other members of the Royal Society (of which Newton was a member) accused Leibniz of plagiarism, and the dispute broke out in full force in 1711. The Royal Society proclaimed in a study that it was Newton who was the true discoverer and labelled Leibniz a fraud. This study was cast into doubt when it was later found that Newton himself wrote the study's concluding remarks on Leibniz. Thus began the bitter controversy which marred the lives of both Newton and Leibniz until the latter's death in 1716.